..History of Physics
History of physics
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Japan’s
Contribution Against the Development of Physics
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Arranged
By:
Murniaty M (091204157)
Anna Tanan (091204158)
Physics ICP 09’
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PREFACE
Praise is to Allah the
Lord of Hosts, who because of an abundance
of mercy and grace of Him the author
of this paper can complete the task well.
There is also the
author thanked profusely for Physics Teachers
Subjects who have given the science and knowledge
to the author, mainly related to the writing of this paper.
The authors
summarize this paper from a reliable source that
the author presented in the presentation sheet
Bibliography.
The author realizes
the writing of this paper is still far from
perfection. Therefore, suggestions and criticism
is the authors hope
to perfect in the
future.
Final words I
hope this paper can increase our knowledge
and ability in the
field of physics as we had hoped.
Makassar, October 2011
Authors
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
The development of science is not
a new thing. Long before BC had a lot of leaders emerged Sciences? For example
such as Archimedes, Aristotle, Ibn al-Haytham, and many others who find a lot
of discovery. Be it in the field of Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, Biology,
Philosophy and others. In prehistoric times many prominent physicists that have
sprung up.
The physicists or physicists
studying the behavior and properties of matter in very different fields,
ranging from submicroscopic particles that make up all matter (particle
physics) to the behavior of the material universe as a whole cosmos.
Physics is often referred to as
"the most fundamental science", because every other natural sciences
(biology, chemistry, geology, etc.) to study certain types of material systems
that obey the laws of physics. For example, chemistry is the science of
molecules and the formation of chemical substances.
Physics research culture is different from other sciences because of the separation of theory and experiment. Since the twentieth century, most individual physicists specializing in theoretical physics research or experimental physics course, and in the twentieth century, few are successful in these areas. In contrast, almost all theorists in biology and chemistry are also successful experimental.
In this paper we will discuss about History of Optics at each period and Japan's Contribution against the Development of Physics. Hopefully with the drafting of this paper can provide additional knowledge about the historical development of physics for the future.
Physics research culture is different from other sciences because of the separation of theory and experiment. Since the twentieth century, most individual physicists specializing in theoretical physics research or experimental physics course, and in the twentieth century, few are successful in these areas. In contrast, almost all theorists in biology and chemistry are also successful experimental.
In this paper we will discuss about History of Optics at each period and Japan's Contribution against the Development of Physics. Hopefully with the drafting of this paper can provide additional knowledge about the historical development of physics for the future.
B. Purpose
The purposes of
writing this paper are:
1.
To
fulfill the task Course History of Physics as one of the conditions of learning
are taught.
2.
To
deepen knowledge of the author in the fields of physics, especially on the
history of optical instruments and Japan's Contribution against the Development
of Physics.
3.
To
become a reference for writers in developing writing skills in particular skills
and writing papers.
C. Problem:
1.
How does the history of optics in
each period?
2.
Who are the characters that play
a role in the physics field of optics?
3.
How Japan's contribution to the
development of physics?
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A.
History of Physics about Development Optics in each
Period
Optics began with the
development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians, followed by
theories on light and vision developed by
ancient Greek and Indian philosophers, and
the development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world. The word optics is derived from
the Greek term τα ὀπτικά
which refers to matters of vision. Optics was significantly reformed by the developments in the
medieval Islamic
world, such as the beginnings of physical and physiological
optics, and then significantly advanced in early modern Europe, where diffractive optics began. These
earlier studies on optics are now known as "classical optics". The
term "modern optics" refers to areas of optical research that largely
developed in the 20th century, such as wave optics and quantum optics.
1.
Early history of optics
The earliest known lenses were made from
polished crystal, often quartz, and have been dated as early as
700 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Layard/Nimrud
lens. There are many similar lenses from ancient
Egypt, Greece and Babylon. The ancient Romans and Greeks
filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. However,
glass lenses were
not thought of until the Middle Ages.
Some lenses fixed in ancient
Egyptian statues are much older than those mentioned above. There is some doubt
as to whether or not they qualify as lenses, but they are undoubtedly glass and
served at least ornamental purposes. The statues appear to be anatomically
correct schematic eyes.
In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th–5th century
BC, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya
school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra)
out of which emerge the gross elements.
In contrast, the Vaisheshika
school gives an atomic theory of the
physical world on the non-atomic ground of ether, space and time. The basic atoms are those of earth (prthivı),
water (apas), fire (tejas), and air (vayu), that should
not be confused with the ordinary meaning of these terms. These atoms are taken
to form binary molecules that combine further to form larger molecules. Motion
is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms. Light rays are taken
to be a stream of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of
light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the
arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century BC, the Vishnu
Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the
sun".
In the fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was
composed of four
elements; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that Aphrodite made the human eye out of the
four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye
making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night
just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between
rays from the eyes and rays from a source such as the sun.
In his Optics Greek mathematician Euclid observed that "things seen
under a greater angle appear greater, and those under a lesser angle less,
while those under equal angles appear equal". In the 36 propositions that
follow, Euclid relates the apparent size of an object to its distance from the
eye and investigates the apparent shapes of cylinders and cones when viewed from
different angles. Pappus believed these
results to be important in astronomy and included Euclid's Optics, along
with his Phaenomena, in the Little Astronomy, a compendium of
smaller works to be studied before the Syntaxis (Almagest) of Ptolemy.
The light and heat of the sun; these are composed
of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right
across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove.
—Lucretius, On the nature of the Universe
Despite being similar to later particle theories of
light, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted and light was still
theorized as emanating from the eye.
In his Catoptrica, Hero of Alexandria showed by a geometrical method
that the actual path taken by a ray of light reflected from a plane mirror is
shorter than any other reflected path that might be drawn between the source
and point of observation.
In a twelfth-century translation
assigned to Roman mathematician Claudius Ptolemy, a study of refraction, including atmospheric refraction, was described. It was suggested
that the angle of
refraction is proportional to the angle of
incidence.
The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the 7th
century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about
reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light
or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy,
similar to the modern concept of photons, though they also viewed all
matter as being composed of these light/energy particles.
2. The beginnings of geometrical optics
The early writers discussed here
treated vision more as a geometrical than as a physical, physiological, or
psychological problem. The first known author of a treatise on geometrical
optics was the geometer Euclid (c. 325 BC–265 BC). Euclid began
his study of optics as he began his study of geometry, with a set of
self-evident axioms.
- Lines (or visual rays) can be drawn in a straight line to the object.
- Those lines falling upon an object form a cone.
- Those things upon which the lines fall are seen.
- Those things seen under a larger angle appear larger.
- Those things seen by a higher ray, appear higher.
- Right and left rays appear right and left.
- Things seen within several angles appear clearer.
Euclid did not define the physical nature of these
visual rays but, using the principles of geometry, he discussed the effects of
perspective and the rounding of things seen at a distance.
Where Euclid had limited his
analysis to simple direct vision, Hero of
Alexandria (c. AD 10–70) extended the principles of
geometrical optics to consider problems of reflection (catoptrics). Unlike
Euclid, Hero occasionally commented on the physical nature of visual rays,
indicating that they proceeded at great speed from the eye to the object seen
and were reflected from smooth surfaces but could become trapped in the
porosities of unpolished surfaces.[4] This has come to be known as emission theory.
Hero demonstrated the equality of
the angle of incidence and reflection on the grounds that this is the shortest
path from the object to the observer. On this basis, he was able to define the
fixed relation between an object and its image in a plane mirror. Specifically,
the image appears to be as far behind the mirror as the object really is in
front of the mirror.
Like Hero, Ptolemy (c. 90–c. 168) considered the
visual rays as proceeding from the eye to the object seen, but, unlike Hero,
considered that the visual rays were not discrete lines, but formed a
continuous cone. Ptolemy extended the study of vision beyond direct and
reflected vision; he also studied vision by refracted rays (dioptrics), when we
see objects through the interface between two media of different density. He
conducted experiments to measure the path of vision when we look from air to
water, from air to glass, and from water to glass and tabulated the
relationship between the incident and refracted rays.
His tabulated results have been
studied for the air water interface, and in general the values he obtained
reflect the theoretical refraction given by modern theory, but the outliers are
distorted to represent Ptolemy's a priori model of the nature of
refraction.
3. Optics and vision in the Islamic world
Figure 1. Reproduction of a page of Ibn Sahl's manuscript showing his discovery of the law of
refraction, now known as Snell's law.
Al-Kindi (c. 801–873) was one of the
earliest important optical writers in the Islamic world. In a work
known in the west as De radiis stellarum, al-Kindi developed a theory
"that everything in the world emits rays in every direction, which fill
the whole world."[6] This theory of the active power
of rays had an influence on later scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham, Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon.
Ibn Sahl (c. 940-1000) was a Persian
mathematician associated with the court of Baghdad. About 984 he wrote a treatise On
Burning Mirrors and Lenses in which he set out his understanding of how curved
mirrors and lenses bend and focus light. In his
work he discovered a law of refraction mathematically equivalent to Snell's
law.[8] He used his law of refraction to
compute the shapes of lenses and mirrors that focus light at a single point on
the axis.
Ibn al-Haytham (known in as Alhacen
or Alhazen in Western Europe) (965–1040) produced a comprehensive and systematic
analysis of Greek optical theories. Ibn al-Haytham's key achievement was
twofold: first, to insist that vision occurred because of rays entering the
eye; the second was to define the physical nature of the rays discussed by
earlier geometrical optical writers, considering them as the forms of light and
color. He then analyzed these physical rays according to the principles of
geometrical optics. He wrote many books on optics, most significantly the Book of
Optics (Kitab al Manazir in Arabic), translated into Latin as the De aspectibus or Perspectiva,
which disseminated his ideas to Western Europe and had great influence on the
later developments of optics.
Avicenna (980-1037) agreed with Alhazen
that the speed of light is finite, as
he "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of
some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite.
"Abū Rayhān
al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) also agreed that light has a finite
speed, and he was the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster
than the speed of sound.
Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn
Ma'udh, who lived in Al-Andalus during the second half of the
11th century, wrote a work on optics later translated into Latin as Liber de
crepisculis, which was mistakenly attributed to Alhazen. This was a "short work
containing an estimation of the angle of depression of the sun at the beginning
of the morning twilight and at the end of the evening
twilight, and an attempt to calculate on the basis of this and other data the
height of the atmospheric moisture responsible for the refraction of the sun's
rays." Through his experiments, he obtained the value of 18°, which comes
close to the modern value.
In the late 13th and early 14th
centuries, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311) and his student Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1260–1320) continued the work
of Ibn al-Haytham, and they were the first to give the correct explanations for
the rainbow phenomenon.
Al-Fārisī published his findings in his Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The
Revision of [Ibn al-Haytham's] Optics).
4. Optics in medieval Europe
The English bishop, Robert Grosseteste (c.
1175–1253), wrote on a wide range of scientific topics at the time of the
origin of the medieval university and the recovery of the works of
Aristotle. Grosseteste reflected a period of transition between the Platonism
of early medieval learning and the new Aristotelianism, hence he
tended to apply mathematics and the Platonic metaphor of light in many of his
writings. He has been credited with discussing light from four different
perspectives: an epistemology of light, a metaphysics or cosmogony of light, an etiology or physics of light, and a theology of light.
Setting aside the issues of
epistemology and theology, Grosseteste's cosmogony of light describes the
origin of the universe in what may loosely be described as a medieval "big
bang" theory. Both his biblical commentary, the Hexaemeron (1230 x
35), and his scientific On Light (1235 x 40), took their inspiration
from Genesis 1:3, "God said, let there
be light", and described the subsequent process of creation as a natural
physical process arising from the generative power of an expanding (and
contracting) sphere of light.
Figure 2. Optical diagram showing
light being refracted by a spherical glass container full of water. (from Roger
Bacon, De multiplicatione specierum)
His more general consideration of light as a
primary agent of physical causation appears in his On Lines, Angles, and
Figures where he asserts that "a natural agent propagates its power
from itself to the recipient" and in On the Nature of Places where
he notes that "every natural action is varied in strength and weakness
through variation of lines, angles and figures."
The English Franciscan, Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294) was strongly
influenced by Grosseteste's writings on the importance of light. In his optical
writings (the Perspectiva, the De multiplicatione specierum, and
the De speculis comburentibus) he cited a wide range of recently
translated optical and philosophical works, including those of Alhacen, Aristotle, Avicenna, Averroes, Euclid, al-Kindi, Ptolemy, Tideus, and Constantine the African. Although he was not a slavish
imitator, he drew his mathematical analysis of light and vision from the
writings of the Arabic writer, Alhacen. But he added to this the Neoplatonic
concept, perhaps drawn from Grosseteste, that every object radiates a power (species)
by which it acts upon nearby objects suited to receive those species. Note that Bacon's optical use of the term
"species" differs significantly from the genus /
species categories found in Aristotelian philosophy.
Another English Franciscan, John
Pecham (died 1292) built on the work of Bacon,
Grosseteste, and a diverse range of earlier writers to produce what became the
most widely used textbook on Optics of the Middle Ages, the Perspectiva
communis. His book centered on the question of vision, on how we see,
rather than on the nature of light and color. Pecham followed the model set
forth by Alhacen, but interpreted Alhacen's ideas in the manner of Roger Bacon.
Like his predecessors, Witelo (c. 1230–1280 x 1314) drew on
the extensive body of optical works recently translated from Greek and Arabic
to produce a massive presentation of the subject entitled the Perspectiva.
His theory of vision follows Alhacen and he does not consider Bacon's concept
of species, although passages in his work demonstrate that he was
influenced by Bacon's ideas. Judging from the number of surviving manuscripts,
his work was not as influential as those of Pecham and Bacon, yet his
importance, and that of Pecham, grew with the invention of printing.
- Peter of Limoges (1240–1306)
- Theodoric of Freiberg (ca. 1250–ca. 1310)
5. Renaissance and early modern optics
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600.
Both lunar and solar eclipses presented
unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a
total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar
eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical
observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on
optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on January
1, 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part
of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the
intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole
cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of
optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of
heavenly bodies. Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the
foundation of modern optics (though the law of
refraction is conspicuously absent).
Willebrord
Snellius (1580–1626) found the mathematical law of refraction, now known as Snell's
law, in 1621. Subsequently René Descartes (1596–1650)
showed, by using geometric construction and the law of refraction (also known
as Descartes' law), that the angular radius of a rainbow is 42° (i.e. the angle
subtended at the eye by the edge of the rainbow and the ray passing from the
sun through the rainbow's centre is 42°).[22] He also independently discovered
the law of
reflection, and his essay on optics was the first published
mention of this law.
Christiaan
Huygens (1629–1695) wrote several works in the area of
optics. These included the Opera reliqua (also known as Christiani
Hugenii Zuilichemii, dum viveret Zelhemii toparchae, opuscula posthuma) and
the Traitbe de la lumiaere.
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second
prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. He also
showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out
a coloured beam and shining it on various objects.
Newton noted that regardless of
whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same
colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with
already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves.
This is known as Newton's theory of colour. From this
work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into
colours, and invented a reflecting telescope (today known as a Newtonian
telescope) to bypass that problem. By grinding his own
mirrors, using Newton's rings to judge the
quality of the optics for his telescopes, he was able to produce a superior
instrument to the refracting telescope, due primarily to the wider diameter of
the mirror. In 1671 the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his
reflecting telescope. Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On
Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. Newton argued that
light is composed of particles or corpuscles and were refracted by
accelerating toward the denser medium, but he had to associate them with waves to explain the diffraction of light (Opticks
Bk. II, Props. XII-L). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike
explanation of light to account for diffraction. Today's quantum
mechanics, photons and the idea of wave-particle
duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's
understanding of light.
In his Hypothesis of Light
of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit
forces between particles. In 1704, Newton published Opticks, in which he expounded his
corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely
subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and
speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross
Bodies and Light convertible into one another, and may not Bodies receive much
of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?”
6. The beginnings of diffractive optics
Figure 3. Thomas Young's sketch
of two-slit diffraction, which he presented to the Royal
Society in 1803
The effects of diffraction of light were
first carefully observed and characterized by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction,
from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light
breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations
were published posthumously in 1665. Isaac Newton studied these effects and
attributed them to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638–1675)
observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was
effectively the first diffraction
grating. In 1803 Thomas Young did his famous experiment observing interference
from two closely spaced slits in his double slit interferometer. Explaining his results by
interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced
that light must propagate as waves. Augustin-Jean
Fresnel did more definitive studies and calculations of
diffraction, published in 1815 and 1818, and thereby gave great support to the
wave theory of light that had been advanced by Christiaan
Huygens and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's
particle theory.
7. Lenses and lensmaking
The earliest known lenses were made from
polished crystal, often quartz, and have been dated as early as
700 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Layard / Nimrud
lens. There are many similar lenses from ancient
Egypt, Greece and Babylon. The ancient Romans and Greeks
filled glass spheres with water to make lenses.
The earliest historical reference
to magnification dates back to ancient
Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 5th century BC, which depict "simple
glass meniscal lenses". The earliest written
record of magnification dates back to the 1st century AD, when Seneca the
Younger, a tutor of Emperor Nero, wrote: "Letters, however
small and indistinct, are seen enlarged and more clearly through a globe or
glass filled with water". Emperor Nero is also said to have watched the gladiatorial games using an emerald as a corrective lens.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen)
wrote about the effects of pinhole, concave lenses, and magnifying
glassse in his Book of Optics. Roger
Bacon used parts of glass spheres as magnifying
glasses and recommended them to be used to help people
read. Roger Bacon got his inspiration from Alhacen in the 11th century. He
discovered that light reflects from objects and does not get released from
them. Around 1284 in Italy, Salvino D'Armate is credited
with inventing the first wearable eye glasses.
Between the 11th and 13th century
"reading stones" were
invented. Often used by monks to assist in illuminating manuscripts, these were primitive plano-convex
lenses initially made by cutting a glass sphere in half.
As the stones were experimented with, it was slowly understood that shallower
lenses magnified more effectively.
The earliest known working
telescopes were the refracting
telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is
credited to three individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in
Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo greatly improved upon these
designs the following year. Isaac Newton is credited with constructing
the first functional reflecting
telescope in 1668, his Newtonian
reflector.
The first microscope was made around
1595 in Middelburg in the Dutch Republic. Three
different eyeglass makers have
been given credit for the invention: Hans Lippershey (who also
developed the first real telescope); Hans Janssen; and his son, Zacharias. The coining
of the name "microscope" has been credited to Giovanni
Faber, who gave that name to Galileo Galilei's compound
microscope in 1625.
8. Quantum optics
Light is made up of particles
called photons and hence
inherently is quantized. Quantum optics is the study of the nature and effects
of light as quantized photons. The first indication that light might be
quantized came from Max Planck in 1899 when he correctly
modelled blackbody
radiation by assuming that the exchange of energy between
light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called quanta. It was
unknown whether the source of this discreteness was the matter or the light. In
1905, Albert Einstein published the
theory of the photoelectric
effect. It appeared that the only possible explanation
for the effect was the quantization of light itself. Later, Niels Bohr showed that atoms could only
emit discrete amounts of energy. The understanding of the interaction between
light and matter following from
these developments not only formed the basis of quantum optics but also were
crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. However, the
subfields of quantum mechanics dealing with matter-light interaction were
principally regarded as research into matter rather than into light and hence,
one rather spoke of atom physics and quantum electronics.
This changed with the invention
of the maser in 1953 and
the laser in 1960. Laser science-research into
principles, design and application of these devices-became an important field,
and the quantum mechanics underlying the laser's principles was studied now
with more emphasis on the properties of light, and the name quantum optics
became customary.
As laser science needed good
theoretical foundations, and also because research into these soon proved very
fruitful, interest in quantum optics rose. Following the work of Dirac in quantum
field theory, George Sudarshan, Roy J. Glauber, and Leonard Mandel applied
quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a
more detailed understanding of photodetection and the statistics of light (see degree of
coherence). This led to the introduction of the coherent
state as a quantum description of laser light and the
realization that some states of light could not be described with classical
waves. In 1977, Kimble et al. demonstrated the first
source of light which required a quantum description: a single atom that emitted
one photon at a time. Another quantum state of light with certain advantages
over any classical state, squeezed light, was soon proposed. At the same time, development
of short and ultrashort laser pulses-created by Q-switching and mode-locking
techniques-opened the way to the study of unimaginably fast ("ultrafast") processes. Applications
for solid state research (e.g. Raman
spectroscopy) were found, and mechanical forces of light on
matter were studied. The latter led to levitating and positioning clouds of
atoms or even small biological samples in an optical trap or optical tweezers by laser beam.
This, along with Doppler cooling was the
crucial technology needed to achieve the celebrated Bose-Einstein condensation.
Other remarkable results are the demonstration of quantum entanglement, quantum teleportation, and (recently, in 1995) quantum
logic gates. The latter are of much interest in quantum information theory, a subject which partly emerged
from quantum optics, partly from theoretical computer science.
Today's fields of interest among
quantum optics researchers include parametric down-conversion, parametric oscillation, even shorter (attosecond) light
pulses, use of quantum optics for quantum
information, manipulation of single atoms, Bose-Einstein condensates, their application, and how to
manipulate them (a sub-field often called atom optics), and much more.
Research into quantum optics that
aims to bring photons into use for information transfer and computation is now
often called photonics to emphasize the claim that
photons and photonics will take the role that electrons and electronics now have.
B. Japan's Contribution Against the Development of Physics
Japan has made significant
contribution to the world of physics. Recently, two Japanese and one
American-born Japanese won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2008, upon the
discovery of subatomic physics, so the announcement of the Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences in Stockholm Sweden, Tuesday, October 7, 2008.
Yoichiro Nambu, 87 from the
University of Chicago, won half the prize for the discovery of a mechanism
called spontaneous fractures symmetry in subatomic physics. Makoto Kobayashi
and Toshihide Maskawa of Japan won half the prize for the discovery of the
origin of symmetry of fracture is estimated to be the existence of at least 3
families electron in nature. They managed to explain the cause of the creation
of the universe of mass through a process known as ‘broken symmetry’’ (broken
symmetries).
Their findings help explain the
existence and behavior of small particles maha (in physics, smaller particles
called quarks of the neutron).
Nambu, now is a professor at the
University of Chicago, discovered the mechanism of spontaneous symmetry
breaking. The findings further explain the Standard Model of Physics. This
model incorporates three or four fundamental forces of nature, ie, strengths,
weaknesses and electromagnetic, and gravitational.
Nambu's work was also influential
in the development of quantum kromodinamik, a theory that explains some of the
interactions between protons and neutrons as the atoms forming elements. and
the quarks that form protons and neutrons.
''The
fact that this world does not behave perfectly symmetrical due to deviations from
symmetry at the microscopic level, ‘symmetries are broken that causes the mass
of the particles exceeds the number of particles of anti-mass. This phenomenon
is actually a fortune for all living things. Because, if the universe is
symmetric, anti-mass will constantly meet the mass and explode with tremendous
energy yield
"Spontaneous symmetry
fracture hide under the direction of the surface mixed," the Nobel academy
said in a letter of appreciation. Nambu theory, absorbing the standard model of
elementary particle physics. The model that unifies the smallest building
blocks of all matter and three of the four forces of nature in one theory.
Nambu was born in Japan, moved to
the U.S. in 1952 and became professor at the University of Chicago, where he
has worked for over 40 years. He became a U.S. citizen 1970.Awal year 1960;
Yoichiro Nambu formulated his mathematical description of spontaneous fracture
creation of symmetry in elementary particle physics.
Kobayashi and Maskawa
"explained within the framework of fracture symmetric standard model but
require a model to be extended to three families elektron.Kobayashi (64),
working for Energy Acceleration Research Organization, or KEK High Level in
Tsukuba, Japan. Maskawa (68) works for the Yukawa Institute for Theoretical
Physics at Kyoto University in Japan.
Fracture spontaneous symmetry
Nambu studied, differ from that described by Kobayashi and Maskawa, clearly
spontaneous incident Nobel.Ketiga academy is seen to exist in nature since the
very beginning of the universe and become a complete surprise when they first
appeared in particle experiments in 1964. Nobel Academy said that in recent
years that scientist could confirm the explanations that Kobayashi and Maskawa
made in 1972.
Could be the new findings complement
the results of the research team from the Italian university. Two months ago,
Marcello Giorgi, Pisa University expert on nuclear physics, announced the
discovery of new sub-atomic-called "Ds (2317)". The new sub-atomic
mass that is always around the nucleus of the atom weighs 2.317 MeV. "This
is the result of work over the past three years," said Giorgi, who uses an
iron atom (Fe) in the trials.
The findings of the new
sub-atomic it can be will change the basic paradigm of the atom. During this
time, atomic theory states that atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and
electrons. Nucleus, the densest part of the static, compiled by protons
(positively charged) and neutrons (neutral). While the electrons (negatively
charged) move around the nucleus of atoms on each trajectory.
Geometrically, it closely
resembles the composition of the solar system in the world of the macrocosm the broken symmetry may sound strange to the layman. And
without damage to the symmetry, it may be human, life, even the universe -
including galaxies, stars, planets, and everything in it - will never exist.
This
phenomenon is explained by three Japanese-born scientist recipient of the Nobel
Prize of Physics 2008, Yoichiro Nambu of the United States, Makoto Kobayashi
and Toshihide Maskawa of Japan. The research they did several decades ago in
areas of sub-atomic physics is an understanding that basically the world we
live is not perfectly symmetrical because of the deviation of symmetry at the
microscopic level.
Nobel
Prize Committee of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, last Tuesday,
announced that Nambu, Enrico Fermi Institute scientists from the University of
Chicago, obtaining half of the prestigious prize for his services to find the
mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breakdown in the sub-atomic physics.
"The
destruction of spontaneous symmetry reveals the natural order beneath the
surface of seemingly irregular," the Nobel Prize committee said in a
statement. "Nambu's theory in line with the standard model of elementary
particle physics. The model summarizes the material making up the smallest unit
and three of the four forces of nature in one single theory." Other prizes
to be divided half and Toshihide Makoto from Japan for their discoveries
concerning the origin of the outbreak of symmetry which predicts the existence
of at least three families of quarks in nature.
Nambu
and Makoto was very surprised to hear their name called as winner of the Nobel
Prize in Physics. Nambu said he did not expect though for years she was told that
his name on the list of candidates nominated for the prize.
It
is also delivered Makoto. "That's a big honor for me and I cannot believe
it," he said. 64-year-old scientist now working at the High Energy
Accelerator Research Organization, or KEK, in Tsukuba, Jepang.Berbeda with
Makoto, Maskawa, professor emeritus at the Yukawa Institute for Theoretical
Physics at Kyoto University, Japan, not at all surprised. "There is a
pattern of how the Nobel Prize awarded," said the man was 68 years.
Their
research considered to be very meaningful because it has revealed the behavior
of the smallest particles, quarks, and underlines the Standard Model that
combines three of the four fundamental forces in nature, the strong nuclear
force, weak nuclear force and electromagnetic force. The labors, the three
scientists will share the prize money amounting to Rp 13.4 billion in the award
ceremony to be held in Stockholm on December 10.
Nambu
is a Japanese-born scientist who moved to the United States in 1952 and became
an American citizen in 1970. Now he's 87 years working as a professor at the
University of Chicago, where she worked for 40 years. "In early 1960,
Nambu formulated a mathematical description of spontaneous symmetry breakdown
in elementary particle physics." Damaged spontaneous symmetry proved very
useful in helping to shape modern physics theory, "said the Nobel Prize
committee.
Nambu
also influenced the development of quantum chromo dynamics, which describes a
number of interactions between protons and neutrons that make up atoms and
quarks that make up protons and neutrons.
While
the research is done by Makoto and Maskawa explained the destruction of
symmetry within the framework of the standard model, but predict that the model
should be extended until at least three families of quarks. Spontaneous
symmetry breakdown that Nambu studied differ with damage symmetry is described
by Makoto and Maskawa. "But the spontaneous occurrence seems to have
existed in nature since the beginning of the universe, and they appear very
surprising when first discovered in particle experiments in 1964," the
academics said.
Although
both the Japanese scientists have proposed predictions since 1972, in recent
years that scientists could confirm it. Hypothesis of the existence of new
quarks could eventually be proven in a number of experimental physics at the
end of 2001.
Two
particle detectors BaBar at Stanford, USA, and Belle at Tsukuba, Japan,
simultaneously detect the broken symmetry that occurs in each facility.
"The results are exactly as predicted by Makoto and Maskawa nearly three
decades earlier," the committee said in its announcement.
Following
up on their discovery, other physicists are now trying to find damage to the
symmetry or the Higgs mechanism, which threw the universe into imbalance when
the Big Bang happened 13.7 billion years ago. They also seek the truth about
the existence of the Higgs boson particle Divine or by using the Large Hadron
Collider at the European Organization for Nuclear Research, or CERN, in Switzerland.
CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION
A. Conclusion
1.
The word comes from Greek optics
τα ὀπτικά term that refers to a vision problem. Optics was significantly
reformed by the developments in the medieval Islamic world, such as the initial
physical and physiological optics, and then significantly developed in early
modern Europe, where diffractive optics began.
2.
Euclid began studying optics as
he began to study geometry, with a clear set of axioms.
·
Lines (or visual rays) can be drawn in a straight
line to the object.
·
Those lines falling upon an object form a cone.
·
Those things upon which the lines fall are seen..
·
Those things seen under a larger angle appear
larger.
·
Those things seen by a higher ray, appear higher.
·
Right and left rays appear right and left.
·
Things seen within several angles appear clearer.
3. The figures in the history of the development of optical
physics, among
others:
·
Al-Kindi (801-873 c)
·
Ibnu Sahl (c. 940-1000)
·
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
·
Willebrord Snellius (1580-1626)
·
Christian Huygens (1629-1695)
·
Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
4.
Japan has made significant
contribution to the world of physics. Recently, two Japanese and one
American-born Japanese won the Nobel Prize in Physics 2008, on the discovery of
subatomic physics.
5.
Research from the United States
Yoichiro Nambu, Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa of Japan did several
decades ago in areas of sub-atomic physics is an understanding that basically
the world we live is not perfectly symmetrical because of the deviation of
symmetry at the microscopic level.
B. Suggestion
In
preparing this paper the author realizes there are still many shortcomings that
need to be repaired. For the sake of the perfection of our next paper,
constructive criticism and suggestions from readers are needed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anonim1. 2011. History of
Optics. http://wikipedia.com. Accessed on October 15, 2011.
Anonim2. 2011. Nobel Fisika untuk Tiga Penemu Partikel Sub atom. http://suaramerdeka.com/v1/index.php/read/cetak/2008/10/08/33732/Nobel-Fisika-untuk-Tiga-Penemu-Partikel-Subatom. Accessed on October 15, 2011.
Anonim3.
2011. Penemu Partikel Sub atom. http://www.fisikanet.lipi.go.id/utama.cgi?artikel&1223509453&17.
Accessed on October 15, 2011.
Kuil, R. 2000.
The Sun Crystal. London: Arrow
Books,. Jakarta: Buku Panah.
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